All electric vehicles (EVs), also known as battery electric vehicle, use a battery pack to conserve the power of the engine. EV batteries are charged by connecting the vehicle to a power source. While electricity generation may contribute to air pollution, as per the U.S. The Environmental Protection Agency all electric vehicles are zero-emitting vehicles because they do not produce a direct exhaust.

Both heavy-duty and light-duty EVs are commercially available. EVs are generally more expensive than similar standard and hybrid vehicles, although some costs can be incurred by saving fuel, organizational tax credit, or state compensation.

Powering Electric Vehicle

In PEVs, internal rechargeable batteries store energy to power one or more electric motors. These batteries are charged using electricity from the grid and the power is taken up during braking, known as regenerative braking.

Powering PEVs at the moment is more expensive compared to using Petrol / Diesel / gasoline, but PEVs are often more expensive to buy. However, initial vehicle costs can be reduced by saving energy costs, organizational tax credit, and state grants. Charge for electric cars is more expensive if drivers can afford the low cost of accommodation and other incentives offered by many services.

Driving Range

Modern EVs are usually shorter (per charge) than conventional comparable vehicles (per fuel tank). However, a growing range of new models and the continuous development of high-powered charging machines narrows this gap.

The efficiency and driving range of EVs varies substantially based on driving conditions. Extreme outside temperatures tend to reduce range, because more energy must be used to heat or cool the cabin.

EVs work much better under city driving than highway travel. Urban driving conditions have standard stops, which increase the benefits of re-applying the brakes, while highway traffic often requires additional power to overcome high-speed towing. Compared to the slower speed, faster acceleration reduces the range of traffic. Carrying heavy loads or driving uphill also has the potential to reduce altitude

Electric Charging Stations

Many PEV owners prefer to charge most of them at home (or at shipping sites, in the case of commercially controlled flights). Some employers offer access to a workplace fee. In many cities, PEV drivers also have access to public charging stations in various locations, such as shopping malls, public parking garages and locations, hotels, and businesses. Charging infrastructure is growing rapidly, providing drivers with ease, scope, and confidence to meet their travel needs.

Electric Vehicle parts: www.inlitetech.com/all-electric-vehicles-parts/

Referance: https://news.hyundaimotorgroup.com/Article/Understanding-EV-Components

Electrical switches can adapt to misunderstandings in the application / application to ensure no leakage current and make them available in multiple circuits, actuators, and housing styles. Disadvantages include their number, limited communication life cycle, large size and slow response.

Solid Switch

Solid switches electric appliances that do not have aging moving parts. They are able to switch quickly without any spark between contacts or problems with communication rust. Their disadvantages include high construction costs at current very high rates.

When selecting a level switch, the user needs to determine if the power circuit needs a switch that is usually open or closed.

Normally Open (NO)

The switches do not currently allow for free access. They need to “create” a contact in order to activate it.

Normally Closed (NC)

The switches currently allow free access and require a “break” contact (open) to be activated.

Stick / Throw

Most switches have one or two poles and one or two throws, but some manufacturers will produce custom-level switches for specialized apps. The number of poles indicates the number of different circuits that can be switched on at the same time.

The cast number describes the number of circuits each pole can control. This is indicated by a circuit configuration (NO / NC). Pause is a circuit breaker caused by contacts that are separated by a switch that introduces each circuit that opens or interrupts the circuit.

Electrical Changing System and Types

Single Pole, One Throw (SPST)

Single pole, single throw switches (SPST) make or break a single conductor connection in a single branch circuit. They usually have two terminals and are called single-pole switches

Single pole, Double Throw (SPDT)

A single pole, dual switches (SPDT) makes or breaks a single conductor connection with one of two conductors. They usually have three terminals and are usually used in pairs. SPDT switches are sometimes called three-way switches.

Double Pole, Single Throw (DPST)

Double pole, single throw switches (DPST) make or break the connection of two circuit conductors in a single branch circuit. They usually have six terminals and are available in both temporary and maintenance communication versions.

Double Pole, Double Throw (DPDT)

Double pole switches, double throw (DPDT) make or break the connection of two conductors in two different circuits. They usually have six terminals and are available in both temporary and maintenance communication versions.

Capacitance can be mathematically expressed by

Also, it is defined as the ratio of charge stored by capacitor to voltage V across the same capacitor.

Note: When the voltage across the capacitor or the capacitor voltage reaches or equal to source voltage means capacitor does not charge. No charge flows.

In circuits capacitor acts a water tank and it stores energy. It releases and more interruption of supply. A capacitor is like a storage tank it can used for smooth out interruption to the supply.

One side of the capacitor is connected to the positive side of the circuit and other side is connected with negative side of the capacitor. The stripe in symbol indicates which side is negative. If we connect capacitor to battery the voltage will push the electron from negative terminal over the capacitor.

The electron will build up in the one plate of capacitor and other plate will turn and release some electrons. Electrons can pass through capacitor through capacitor because of insulating material eventually the capacitor is the same voltage as the battery. Then no more electrons will flow.

There is a build up an electrons on one side this means we have stored energy. This can be released to do work because more electrons in one side to compare to other electron are negatively charged. This means we have one side negative and other side positive.

So there is difference in potential or voltage difference between the two. The voltages we are compare difference between two points. If we measure 1.5 V batteries then we read the difference between the 1.5V each end. But if we measure same end there voltage is zero there is no difference.

The unit of capacitance is Farad (F). To Honor Sir Michal Faraday (the inventor of most popular electrical law of electromagnetic induction), the unit of capacitor is named in Farad. Actually, one Farad is very large unit which means the size of the capacitor comes very bigger and most capacitors are rated in micro Farad (uF= 1 x 10^-6) or micro farad (pF) or Pico Farad (pF) 1 pF = 1 x 10-12F

If Q=1 coulomb and V=1 volt, then capacitance is 1F. That’s we can say that 1 Farad is equal to 1 Coulombs/1volt.

One Farad

One Farad is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a potential difference of I volt when it is charged by 1 coulomb of electricity.

Calculate capacitance value for two parallel plates capacitor

Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor in which the upper and lower plates are separated by some distance of d meters. There is a potential difference of V volts between the two plates, therefore work required in transferring coulomb of charge from one plate to another is V Joules; since the work is the product of force and distance d the force experienced by the charge is the electric field strength E is given by ..

The electric flux density D is given by

The relation between electric flux density and electric field in terminals is given by

The parallel plate capacitor

Here the relative permeability of the material vary according to the type of dielectric material is used to construct a capacitor.

A battery, in a sense, can be any device that stores energy in the form of chemical energy. At the same time the battery converts electrical energy into chemical energy during charging and chemical energy into electrical energy during discharge.

The common use of the term “battery,” however, is limited to the use of an electric motor that converts chemical energy into electricity, using a galvanic cell. A galvanic cell is a simple tool that combines two electrodes (anode and cathode) with an electrolyte solution. Batteries include one or more galvanic cells.

How battery works?

Electrodes (two plates, each made of a different type of metal or metal compound) are inserted into the electrolyte solution.

The outer wires connect the electrodes to the Electric Load (lamp in this case). The metal in the anode (negative terminal) oxidize, releasing improperly charged electrons and well-charged metal ions.

Electrons travel through the wire (and the load of electricity) to the cathode (terminal). Electrons interact with objects in the cathode. This process of synthesis is called reduction, and it emits a badly charged metal-oxide ion

In contact with electrolyte, this ion causes the water molecule to split into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. A well-charged hydrogen ion mixes with a strong metal-oxide ion and becomes inert.

The negative hydroxide ion flows from the electrolyte to the anode where it combines with a well-charged metal ion, forming a water molecule and a metal-oxide molecule. In fact, iron ions from the anode will dissolve into electrolyte solution while hydrogen molecules from the electrolyte are deposited in the cathode.

If the anode is fully oxidized or the cathode is completely depleted, the chemical reaction will stop and the battery will be considered discharged.

Recharge battery

Rechargeing the battery is usually a matter of using the outside power on all the plates to slow down the chemical process. However, some chemical reactions are systemic or impossible to reverse. Cells with irreversible reactions are generally known as primary cells, whereas cells with reversible reactions are known as secondary cells. It is dangerous to try to recharge basic cells.

The amount of voltage and current generated by a galvanic cell is directly related to the types of materials used in the electrodes and the electrolyte. The length of time a cell can produce that voltage and still depends on the number of active cells in the cell and the cell design.

Every metal or metal compound has an electromotive effect, which is the tendency of the metal to gain or lose electrons in relation to another material. Powerful electromotive computers will make fine anodes and those negatively charged A batteries will make fine cathodes. The greater the difference between the battery A electromotive power of the anode and cathode, the greater the amount of energy that can be produced by a cell.

where ke is Coulomb’s constant (ke = 8.9875×10^9 N m2 C−2), q1 and q2 are the signed magnitudes of the charges, and the scalar r is the distance between the charges. The force F of the interaction between the charges is attractive if the charges have opposite signs (i.e., F is negative) and repulsive if like-signed (i.e., F is positive).

Here the q1 and q2 is expressed by Coulombs.

r is in meter

Also, the above equation is written as

Here 4 * pi is the proportionality factor, € is permeability of air.

A three phase system is said to be unbalanced when either at least one of the three phase voltage is not equal to other or the phase angle between these phases is not exactly equal to 120^o.

Advantages of Three Phase System

There are many reasons due to which this power is more preferable than single phase power.

1. The single phase power equation is
   
   Which is time dependent function. Whereas three phase power equation is
   
   Which is time independent constant function. Hence the single phase power is pulsating. This generally does not effect the low rating motor but in larger rated motor, it produces excessive vibration. So three phase power is more preferable for high tension power load.
2. The rating of a three phase machine 1.5 times greater than that of same size single phase machine.
3. Single phase induction motor has no starting torque, so we have to provide some auxiliary means of starting, but three phase induction motor is self starting-does not require any auxiliary means.
4. Power factor and efficiency, both are greater in case of three phase system.

Three Phase Power Equation

For determination, the expression of three phase power equation i.e. for three phase power calculation we have to first consider an ideal situation where the three phase system is balanced. That means voltage and currents in each phase differ from their adjacent phase by 120^o as well as the amplitude of each current wave is same and similarly amplitude of each voltage wave is same. Now, the angular difference between voltage and current in each phase of three phase power system is φ.

Then the voltage and current of red phase will be
respectively.
The voltage and current of yellow phase will be-
respectively.
And the voltage and current of blue phase will be-
respectively.
Therefore, the expression instantaneous power in red phase is –

Similarly the expression instantaneous power in yellow phase is –

Similarly the expression instantaneous power in blue phase is –

The total three phase power of the system is summation of the individual power in each phase-

The above expression of power shows that the total instantaneous power is constant and equal to three times of the real power per phase. In case of single phase power expression we found that there are both reactive power and active power components, but in case of three phase power expression, the instantaneous power is constant. Actually in three phase system, the reactive power in each individual phase is not zero but sum of them at any instant is zero.

Different types of circuits show different response to the application of sinusoidal input. We will consider all type of circuits one by one that include electrical resistance only, capacitance only and inductor only, and a combination of these three and try to establish single phase power equation.

Equation for Purely Resistive Circuit

Let’s examine single phase power calculation for purely resistive circuit. Circuit consisting of pure ohmic resistance is across a voltage source of voltage V, is shown below in the figure.

Where, V(t) = instantaneous voltage.
V_m = maximum value of voltage.
ω = angular velocity in radians/seconds.

According to Ohm’s law ,

Substituting value of V(t) in above equation we get,

From equations (1.1) and (1.5) it is clear that V(t) and I_R are in phase. Thus in case of pure ohmic resistance, there is no phase difference between voltages and current, i.e. they are in phase as shown in figure (b).

Instantaneous power,

From single phase power equation (1.8) it is clear that power consist of two terms, one constant part i.e.

and another a fluctuating part i.e.

That’s value is zero for the full cycle. Thus power through pure ohmic resistor is given as and is shown in fig(c).

Equation for Purely Inductive Circuit

Inductor is a passive component. Whenever AC passes through inductor, it opposes the flow of current through it by generating back emf. So, applied voltage rather than causing drop across it needs to balance the back emf produced. Circuit consisting of pure inductor across sinusoidal voltage source V_rms is shown in figure below.

We know that voltage across inductor is given as,

Thus from above single phase power equation it is clear that I lags V by π/2 or in other words V leads I by π/2 , when AC pass through inductor i.e. I and V are out of phase as shown in fig (e).

Instantaneous power is given by,

Here, single phase power formula consists of only fluctuating term and the value of power for full cycle is zero.

Equation for Purely Capacitive Circuit

When AC passes through capacitor, it charges first to its maximum value and then it discharges. The voltage across capacitor is given as,


Thus it is clear from above single phase power calculation of I(t) and V(t) that in case of capacitor current leads voltage by angle of π/2.


Power through capacitor consists of only fluctuating term and the value of power for full cycle is zero.

Single Phase Power Equation for RL Circuit

A pure ohmic resistor and inductor are connected in series below as shown in fig (g) across a voltage source V. Then drop across R will be V_R = IR and across L will be V_L = IX_L.


These voltage drops are shown in form of a voltage triangle as shown in fig (i). Vector OA represents drop across R = IR, vector AD represents drop across L = IX_L and vector OD represents the resultant of V_R and V_L.

is the impedance of RL circuit.
From vector diagram it is clear that V leads I and phase angle φ is given by,

Thus power consist of two terms, one constant term 0.5 V_mI_mcosφ and other a fluctuating term 0.5 V_mI_mcos(ωt – φ) that’s value is zero for the whole cycle.
Thus its the only constant part that contributes to actual power consumption.
Thus power, p = VI cos Φ = ( rms voltage × rms current × cosφ) watts
Where cosφ is called power factor and given by,

I can be resolved in two rectangular components Icosφ along V and Isinφ perpendicular to V. Only Icosφ contributes to real power. Thus, only VIcosφ is called wattfull component or active component and VIsinφ is called wattless component or reactive component.

Single Phase Power Equation for RC Circuit

We know that current in pure capacitance, leads voltage and in pure ohmic resistance it is in phase. Thus, net current leads voltage by angle of φ in RC circuit. If V = V_msinωt and I will be I_msin(ωt + φ).

Power is same as in the case of R-L circuit. Unlike R-L circuit electrical power factor is leading in R-C circuit.

Active Power

Resistive Power

Let’s take the condition first where the single phase power circuit is fully resistive in nature, that means the phase angle between voltage and current i.e. φ = 0 and hence,


From the above equation it is clear that, whatever may be the value of ωt the value of cos2ωt cannot be greater than 1; hence the value of p cannot be negative. The value of p is always positive irrespective of the instantaneous direction of voltage v and current i, that means the energy is flowing in its conventional direction, i.e. from source to load and p is the rate of energy consumption by the load and this is called active power. As this power is consumed due to resistive effect of an electrical circuit, hence sometimes it is also called Resistive Power.

Reactive Power

Inductive Power

Now consider a situation when the single phase power circuit is fully inductive, that means the current lags behind the voltage by an angle φ = + 90^o. Putting φ = + 90^o


In the above expression, it is found that the power is flowing in alternative directions. From 0^o to 90^o it will have negative half cycle, from 90^o to 180^o it will have positive half cycle, from 180^o to 270^o it will have again negative half cycle and from 270^o to 360^o it will have again positive half cycle. Therefore this power is alternative in nature with a frequency, double of supply frequency. As the power is flowing in alternating direction i.e. from source to load in one half cycle and from load to source in next half cycle, the average value of this power is zero. Therefore this power does not do any useful work. This power is known as reactive power. As the above explained reactive power expression is related to fully inductive circuit, this power is also called inductive power.

This can be concluded as if the circuit is purely inductive, energy will be stored as magnetic field energy during positive half cycle and give away during negative half cycle and rate at which this energy changes, expressed as reactive power of inductor or simply inductive power and this power will have equal positive and negative cycle and the net value will be zero.

Capacitive Power

Let us now consider the single phase power circuit is fully capacitive, that is the current leads the voltage by 90^o, therefore φ = – 90^o.


Hence in the expression of capacitive power, it is also found that the power is flowing in alternative directions. From 0^o to 90^o it will have positive half cycle, from 90^o to 180^o it will have negative half cycle, from 180^o to 270^o it will have again positive half cycle and from 270^o to 360^o it will have again negative half cycle. So this power is also alternative in nature with a frequency, double of supply frequency. Therefore, as inductive power, the capacitive power does not do any useful work. This power is also a reactive power.

Reactive power is the form of magnetic energy, flowing per unit time in an electric circuit. Its unit is VAR (Volt Ampere Reactive). This power can never be used in an AC circuit. However, in an electrical DC circuit it can be converted into heat as when a charged capacitor or inductor is connected across a resistor, the energy stored in the element get converted to heat. Our power system operates on AC system and most of the loads used in our daily life, are inductive or capacitive, therefore reactive power is a very important concept from electrical perspective.

The electrical power factor of any equipment determines the amount of reactive power it requires. It is the ratio of real or true power to the total apparent power required by an electrical appliance. These powers can be defined as,

Where, θ is the phase difference between voltage and current and cosθ is electrical power factor of the load.

Reactive power is always present in a circuit where there is a phase difference between voltage and current in that circuit, such as all our domestic loads are inductive. So, there is a phase difference between voltage and current, and the current lags behind the voltage by certain angle in time domain. An inductive component takes the lagging reactive power and a capacitive component absorbs the leading reactive power, here lagging reactive power refers to magnetic energy and leading reactive power refers to electrostatic energy.

In a typical AC circuit, such as RL circuit (Resistive + Inductive) or RC circuit (Resistive + Capacitive), the reactive power is taken from the supply for a half cycle and returned to the supply for next half cycle. For example power consumed for an RL load is derived as:

V = V_msinωt , I = I_msin(ωt − θ)

Here, Q₁sin2ωt is reactive power that’s average value is zero, this shows that reactive power is never utilized.

Referance: electrical4u